I'm going to give up and assemble what little I've found into an answer, because nobody else has done so. The section numbers below refer to CMoS16 as found on the Chicago Manual's website (after signing up for the 30-day trial).

How much of the source details should I translate, and where?

"How much":

14.71: You may translate things like "volume" and "edition" if you have a firm grasp of the language, but if the work is likely to be found in a library catalog with an abbreviation of the foreign term, it may be best to leave the abbreviation untranslated.

14.108 implies that you may provide a translation of the title if you feel it necessary.

14.137 says the names of cities should be in English if available (Munich, Vienna, Prague instead of München, Wien, Praha).

14.142 says "No part of a foreign publisher’s name should be translated, even though the city has been given in its English form."

14.194 says the same things about translations of article titles as 14.108 says about book titles.

"where":

14.14 "If the bibliography includes all works cited in the notes, the notes need not duplicate the source information in full because readers can consult the bibliography for publication details and other information."

In other words, the bibliography should be complete (more verbose than the notes), so that's where things like translations of the title go. (If you have lots of room to fill, you can repeat yourself between notes and bibliography.)

Formatting: 14.108 says that in the notes and bibliography, author- or editor-supplied title translations should be in brackets, with no italics or quotation marks, using sentence-style capitalization. (Brackets means square brackets.)

How do I credit my source in such a way that an English-speaking reader will know that I'm naming an online repository?

I cannot find anything relevant. Citations of online sources of all sorts basically append the URL or DOI to the end of the print-style citation, without naming or identifying the repository in any way.

If the same unwieldily-named foreign entity published or archived multiple items on my list, can I abbreviate the name for all but the alphabetically earliest source in the bibliography?

I haven't found anything directly relevant.

Should I provide a translation of an institute's acronym? If so, where (endnote or bibliography)?

I cannot find any information on "should I"; if the answer is "yes", then based on (1), it probably goes in the bibliography. Based on 14.142, however, I suspect the advice is that I shouldn't.

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